Cabaran Globalisasi Ekonomi

Aliran modal antarabangsa telah meningkat dengan banyak dengan kadar pelaburan langsung asing (FDI) meningkat tujuh kali ganda dari 1970 hingga 1990-an. Aliran modal jangka masa pendek yang kebanyakannya mudah meruap meningkat lebih tiga kali ganda berbanding 1980-an, dan sekarang jumlah kasarnya mencatat lebih daripada AS$2 trilion.

Jumlah pelancong yang melawat negara lain juga meningkat dua kali ganda antara 1980 dan 1986, daripada 260 juta kepada 590 juta pelancong setahun dan tentunya kerana teknologi yang lebih baik dan murah, manusia berhubung lebih kerap dan lebih lama. Masa yang dihabiskan untuk panggilan telefon antarabangsa melonjak daripada 33 bilion minit pada 1990 kepada 70 bilion pada 1996. Namun belum mengambil kira kesan e-mel dan Internet.Malaysia telah mendapat banyak manfaat daripada perkembangan-perkembangan itu. Pertumbuhan ekonomi sejak hampir sedekad yang lalu dibantu oleh banyaknya aliran FDI ke dalam ekonomi negara.

Tanpa ekonomi terbuka negara Malaysia tidak dapat menarik pelaburan penting dalam bidang seperti pembuatan, minyak dan gas, serta dalam sektor teknologi tinggi berintensifkan modal. Pelaburan-pelaburan ini membantu ekonomi negara pulih daripada krisis kewangan Asia apabila keadaan pasaran global membolehkan Malysia membebaskan diri daripada kegawatan.

Malaysia juga menerima akibat kerana menjadi pemain yang aktif dalam ekonomi dunia global yang semakin saling bergantung sifatnya. Krisis kewangan Asia adalah kesan langsung pasaran modal global yang terlalu cepat liberal. Pada tahun 1990-an, apabila negara di rantau ini termasuk Malaysia menarik pelaburan, kita tidak terlalu ambil berat sama ada ia jangka panjang atau jangka pendek. Bersama negara-negara jiran, Malaysia membenarkan modal asing membeli kilang-kilang dan mengambil pekerja tempatan dan membenarkan mereka melabur dengan banyaknya dalam pasaran saham dan hartanah.

  

Hari ini Malysia juga berdepan dengan ancaman yang dibawa bersama oleh globalisasi ekonomi. Oleh kerana penggantungan kepada ekonomi AS sebagai pasaran eksport dan rakan perdagangan dan pelaburan utama dan Malaysia berdepan dengan kejatuhan teruk ekonomi AS.

Masa depan di AS serta ekonomi Jepun yang nazak memaksa kerajaan untuk menyusun semula harapan ekonomi untuk tahun ini dan bersedia untuk suntikan tambahan kerajaan bagi merangsang pelaburan dan perbelanjaan domestik. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa dalam ekonomi dunia yang saling bergantung dan berkait rapat, tidak dapat mengasingkan diri daripada apa yang berlaku. Sama ada suka atau tidak, dan sama ada kita boleh mengawalnya atau tidak, perkembangan di seluruh dunia akan memberi kesan kepada masyarakat dan negara. Globalisasi juga membawa bersamanya jurang perbezaan dan ketidakseimbangan yang ketara. Kelihatan seolah-olah yang kaya mendapat manfaat lebih daripada yang miskin.

 

Menjelang 1997, jurang pendapatan antara satu per lima penduduk dunia di negara-negara kaya dan satu per lima yang tinggal di negara miskin adalah 74 kepada 1, meningkat daripada 60 kepada 1 pada 1990 dan 30 kepada 1 pada 1960. Menjelang akhir 1990-an, satu per lima daripada penduduk yang tinggal di negara berpendapatan tinggi mempunyai 86 peratus daripada KDNK dunia - lima peratus yang di bawah memiliki hanya 1 peratus.

Ketidakseimbangan dan jurang dalam pendapatan dan peluang ini terus meningkat, dan kita sekarang sedang melihat kemunculan jurang digital antara penduduk yang mempunyai akses kepada IT dengan mereka yang tidak. Globalisasi yang sepatutnya menjadi sesuatu yang positif kepada semua negara yang seharusnya mendapat manfaat daripada pasaran bebas, liberalisasi, pembatalan kawal selia dan perubahan teknologi, telah gagal untuk meningkatkan taraf kehidupan majoriti penduduk dunia.

Dalam konteks ini, globalisasi sangat memerlukan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan. Peluang dan manfaat globalisasi perlu dikongsi dengan lebih luas dan saksama. Sekiranya tiada apa dilakukan bagi menangani jurang yang luas ini, globalisasi akan menjadi ancaman kepada keselamatan dan kesejahteraan manusia. Pasaran modal antarabangsa yang tidak terkawal yang menjerumuskan ekonomi Asia meninggalkan kesan sosioekonomi yang sukar dipulihkan. Kesannya, kestabilan politik yang menjadi kebanggaan rantau Asia Tenggara tidak boleh lagi dipandang ringan. Kekurangan global begitu meluas sehingga saya bimbang di sesetengah rantau, masalah-masalah ini seperti bom jangka yang menunggu masa untuk meletus tetapi tidak diendahkan oleh mereka yang kaya dan berkuasa.

Kesatuan Eropah (EU) mencontohi Ciri-ciri Positif Model Asia Timur

Kebelakangan ini, kritikan terhadap model ekonomi Eropah telah berkembang lebih kukuh berbanding dengan Amerika dan model Asia Timur, ia telah dianggap sebagai lebih rendah dari segi kecekapan ekonomi dicerminkan dalam kedua-dua kadar pertumbuhan keseluruhan ekonomi dan produktiviti. Sebagai contoh, Alberto Alesina dan Francesco Giavazzi (2006, 4-5) mengadu EU KDNK per kapita jatuh dari 80 peratus daripada peringkat Amerika Syarikat (AS) pada akhir Tahun 1980-an hingga 70 peratus daripada paras AS pada tahun 2006. 

Korea Selatan pula KDNK per kapita dalam kuasa belinya sebaliknya, meningkat daripada 12 peratus daripada Paras AS pada pertengahan tahun 1960-an kepada 50 peratus pada masa kini. Kesatuan Eropah (EU) telah beransur-ansur menerima kritikan ini dan cuba memperbaiki model ekonomi. Kenyataan dasar utama yang diguna pakai oleh Majlis Eropah pada bulan Mac 2000 di Lisbon, merumuskan "strategik matlamat untuk dekad akan datang. "Agenda Lisbon mengakui cabaran dalam erti kata yang dramatik (Eropah Majlis 2000):

Persoalannya hari ini, sama ada Kesatuan Eropah (EU) perlu mengamalkan tiga ciri liberal model Asia tetapi bagaimana untuk berbuat demikian dengan cara paling mudah. Idea utama bab ini ialah mod berpusat untuk menyelesaikan masalah dalam Kesatuan Eropah (EU), yang telah banyak menguasai dalam setengah abad lalu, telah berakhir. Apa yang Eropah perlu pada hari ini ialah bukan keputusan dari atas ke bawah tetapi penerimaan meluas terhadap bottom-up, pembaharuan cukai, pemindahan sosial, dan penyahkawalseliaan, berdasarkan perbandingan tradisional kelebihan, persaingan di kalangan negara-negara wilayah dan Eropah. 

Khususnya, persaingan cukai harus dialu-alukan dan memudahkan. Persaingan pengawalseliaan, terutamanya penyahkawalseliaan pasaran buruh, yang akan memudahkan pergerakan buruh yang lebih bebas

Kesan Proses Globalisasi Ekonomi

Kesan Positif

                                                         

1.                 Perdagangan Bebas

2.                 Perluasan Pasaran

3.                 Permindahan Teknologi

4.                 Aliran Buruh

5.                 Menggalakkan Persaingan

6.                 Peningkatan Kualiti Produk

Kesan Negatif

  

  Penguasaan ekonomi negara oleh Syarikat Multinasional (MNC) 

  Ancaman kepada barangan, perkhidmatan serta budaya tempatan 

  Ancaman kepada pengusaha kecil dan sederhana tempatan

4.        Kes  kesukaran untuk mengawal aliran modal asing

  Penghakisan kedaulatan negara         

  

 Perdagangan Bebas

 

Obama mahu luaskan zon perdagangan bebas 

 

       Obama menggesa negara-negara APEC supaya menyertai blok Perkongsian Rentas Pasifik (TPP) yang diterajui AS. TPP merupakan perjanjian perdagangan bebas multilateral bertujuan menjadikan rantau Asia Pasifik sebagai zon perdagangan bebas

Peningkatan Kualiti Kereta PROTON Mengukuhkan Penerimaan Pengguna

PROTON melancarkan Kempen Kualiti 2011 bagi menggalakkan seluruh kakitangannya agar terus melipatgandakan usaha untuk menambahbaik tahap kualiti dalam operasi dan perkhidmatan demi menghasilkan produk-produk yang berkualiti tinggi dan kompetitif samada di pasaran tempatan mahupun antarabangsa.

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

In June 1988 the European Council confirmed the objective of the progressive realisation of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). It mandated a committee chaired by Jacques Delors, the then President of the European Commission, to study and propose concrete stages leading to this union.

The committee was composed of the governors of the then European Community (EC) national central banks; Alexandre Lamfalussy, the then General Manager of the Bank for International Settlements (BIS); Niels Thygesen, professor of economics, Denmark; and Miguel Boyer, the then President of the Banco Exterior de España.

The resulting Delors Report proposed that economic and monetary union should be achieved in three discrete but evolutionary steps. 

 

Stage One of EMU

On the basis of the Delors Report, the European Council decided in June 1989 that the first stage of the realisation of economic and monetary union should begin on 1 July 1990. On this date, in principle, all restrictions on the movement of capital between Member States were abolished.

Committee of Governors

The Committee of Governors of the central banks of the Member States of the European Economic Community, which had played an increasingly important role in monetary cooperation since its creation in May 1964, was given additional responsibilities. These were laid down in a Council Decision dated 12 March 1990. Their new tasks included holding consultations on, and promoting the coordination of, the monetary policies of the Member States, with the aim of achieving price stability.
In view of the relatively short time available and the complexity of the tasks involved, the preparatory work for Stage Three of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was also initiated by the Committee of Governors. The first step was to identify all the issues which should be examined at an early stage, to establish a work programme by the end of 1993 and to define accordingly the mandates of the existing sub-committees and working groups established for that purpose.

Legal preparations

For the realisation of Stages Two and Three, it was necessary to revise the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (the Treaty of Rome) in order to establish the required institutional structure. To this end, an Intergovernmental Conference on EMU was convened, which was held in 1991 in parallel with the Intergovernmental Conference on political union.
The negotiations resulted in the Treaty on European Union which was agreed in December 1991 and signed in Maastricht on 7 February 1992. However, owing to delays in the ratification process, the Treaty (which amended the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community – changing its name to the Treaty establishing the European Community – and introduced, inter alia, the Protocol on the Statute of the European System of Central Banks and of the European Central Bank (pdf 200 kB, en) and the Protocol on the Statute of the European Monetary Institute) did not come into force until 1 November 1993.

Stage Two of EMU, establishment of the EMI and the ECB

The establishment of the European Monetary Institute (EMI) on 1 January 1994 marked the start of the second stage of EMU and with this the Committee of Governors ceased to exist. The EMI's transitory existence also mirrored the state of monetary integration within the Community. The EMI had no responsibility for the conduct of monetary policy in the European Union – this remained the preserve of the national authorities – nor had it any competence for carrying out foreign exchange intervention.
The two main tasks of the EMI:

• to strengthen central bank cooperation and monetary policy co-ordination, and
• to make the preparations required for the establishment of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB), for the conduct of the single monetary policy and for the creation of a single currency in the third stage.

To this end, the EMI provided a forum for consultation and for an exchange of views and information on policy issues and it specified the regulatory, organisational and logistical framework necessary for the ESCB to perform its tasks in Stage Three . In December 1995 the European Council agreed to name the European currency unit to be introduced at the start of Stage Three, the ‘euro', and confirmed that Stage Three of EMU would start on 1 January 1999. A chronological sequence of events was pre-announced for the changeover to the euro. This scenario was mainly based on detailed proposals elaborated by the EMI.

ERM II

At the same time, the EMI was given the task of carrying out preparatory work on the future monetary and exchange rate relationships between the euro area and other EU countries. In December 1996 the EMI presented its report to the European Council, which formed the basis of a Resolution of the European Council on the principles and fundamental elements of the new exchange rate mechanism (ERM II), which was adopted in June 1997.

The new banknotes

In December 1996 the EMI also presented to the European Council, and subsequently to the public, the selected design series for the euro banknotes to be put into circulation on 1 January 2002.

Stability and Growth Pact

In order to complement and to specify the Treaty provisions on EMU, the European Council adopted the Stability and Growth Pact in June 1997 – two Regulations form part of the Stability and Growth Pact, which aims to ensure budgetary discipline in respect of EMU. The Pact was supplemented and the respective commitments enhanced by a Declaration of the Council in May 1998.

Initial participants

On 2 May 1998 the Council of the European Union – in the composition of Heads of State or Government – unanimously decided that 11 Member States had fulfilled the conditions necessary for the participation in the third stage of EMU and the adoption of the single currency on 1 January 1999. The initial participants were Belgium, Germany, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal and Finland. The Heads of State or Government also reached a political understanding on the persons to be recommended for appointment as members of the Executive Board of the European Central Bank (ECB).

Preparation for fixing the conversion rates

Also in May 1998, the ministers of finance of the Member States adopting the single currency agreed together with the governors of the national central banks of these Member States, the European Commission and the EMI that the current ERM bilateral central rates of the currencies of the participating Member States would be used in determining the irrevocable conversion rates for the euro.

Appointment of decision-making bodies

On 25 May 1998 the governments of the 11 participating Member States appointed the President, the Vice-President and the four other members of the Executive Board of the ECB. Their appointment took effect from 1 June 1998 and marked the establishment of the ECB. The ECB and the national central banks of the participating Member States constitute the Eurosystem, which formulates and defines the single monetary policy in Stage Three of EMU.
With the establishment of the ECB on 1 June 1998, the EMI had completed its tasks. In accordance with Article 123 (ex Article 109l) of the Treaty establishing the European Community, the EMI went into liquidation on the establishment of the ECB. All the preparatory work entrusted to the EMI was concluded in good time and the rest of 1998 was devoted by the ECB to the final testing of systems and procedures.

Stage Three of EMU, irrevocable fixing of exchange rates

On 1 January 1999 the third and final stage of EMU commenced with the irrevocable fixing of the exchange rates of the currencies of the 11 Member States initially participating in Monetary Union and with the conduct of a single monetary policy under the responsibility of the ECB.
The number of participating Member States increased to 12 on 1 January 2001, when Greece entered the third stage of EMU. Slovenia became the 13th member of the euro area on 1 January 2007, followed one year later by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia on 1 January 2009 and by Estonia on 1 January 2011. On the day each country joined the euro area, its central bank automatically became part of the Eurosystem.